Manifest Destiny was a 19th-century American belief that the United States was divinely ordained to expand its borders westward across the North American continent to the Pacific Ocean. [1, 2]
Key Origins and Definition
Major Expansion Milestones
- Oregon Territory (1846): Settled by treaty with Great Britain, securing the Pacific Northwest. [1, 2]
- Mexican-American War (1846–1848): Ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, adding over 525,000 square miles of land (including California, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and parts of Colorado). [1, 2]
- Later Acquisitions: Following the Civil War, the "New Manifest Destiny" extended the ideology to overseas expansion, including the purchase of Alaska (1867) and the annexation of Hawaii (1898). [1]
Consequences and Impact
- Displacement of Indigenous Peoples: The ideology was used to justify the forced removal, military subjection, and decimation of Native American tribes who stood in the path of settlement (such as the Trail of Tears). [1, 2]
Europeans practiced indentured servitude extensively, both within Europe (tracing back to medieval serfdom and domestic apprenticeship systems) and as a primary labor force in their overseas colonies. [1, 2]
Indentured Servitude in Colonial America and the Caribbean
- High Volume: Between one-half and two-thirds of all white European immigrants to the Thirteen Colonies arrived as indentured servants during the 17th and 18th centuries. [1, 2]
- The Deal: In exchange for a costly transatlantic ship passage, food, housing, and clothing, European workers (mostly young men and women from England, Ireland, Scotland, and Germany) signed a contract—an indenture—to work without wages for a fixed term, usually lasting 4 to 7 years. [1, 2, 3]
- Not All Voluntary: While many signed contracts willingly to escape poverty or find land, others were kidnapped (a practice called "spiriting"), forced into service as convicts, or bound by parents. [1, 2, 3]
- Loss of Rights: During their term, servants could be bought and sold, subjected to physical punishment, and legally restricted from marrying or having children without their master's permission. [1]
- Freedom Dues: Upon finishing their contract, surviving servants were often promised "freedom dues" such as money, tools, or small parcels of land, though many died before completing their term or never received their dues. [1, 2]
European Roots and Later Colonial Labor
- Medieval Precedents: Systems of bound labor, service contracts, and apprenticeship had long existed in Europe, rooted in medieval serfdom and laws like England's 1449 Ordinance of Labourers and 1563 Statute of Artificers. [1]
- Transition to Slavery: As European landowners grew reluctant to deal with freed white servants who demanded land and rights, colonies increasingly shifted their economic reliance to lifelong, hereditary chattel slavery of enslaved Africans. [1, 2, 3]
- 19th-Century Indenture: Following the abolition of slavery in the 19th century, European empires (including the British, French, Portuguese, and Dutch) revived large-scale indenture systems, importing millions of laborers—predominantly from India and China—to work on global plantations and infrastructure. [1, 2]
"Redemptioners" was the specialized term for a major category of European indentured immigrants who crossed the Atlantic, particularly from Germany and Switzerland in the 18th and 19th centuries.
While "indentured servant" is the overarching historical term, several specific names were used to describe people who made the transatlantic crossing under bound labor arrangements:
Specialized Terms for Transatlantic Servants
- Redemptioners: Unlike traditional indentured servants who signed contracts before leaving Europe, redemptioners boarded ships on credit. Upon arrival in America, they were given a brief window to find a relative to pay their fare or negotiate their own labor contract with a buyer to "redeem" their debt. If they failed, the ship's captain sold their labor contract to the highest bidder.
- The "Kings Passengers" or Convict Servants: These were British convicts sentenced to "transportation" across the Atlantic as an alternative to execution or prison. They were sold into mandatory indentured servitude—usually for 7 or 14 years.
- Spirited Servants: This term referred to individuals, often children or vulnerable adults, who were kidnapped from European port cities by trickery or force (a practice called "spiriting") and forced onto ships to be sold as servants in the colonies.
- Customary Servants (or "Servants according to the Custom of the Country"): This described immigrants who arrived in colonies like Maryland or Virginia without any written contract. Colonial law dictated that they had to serve a standard term (often 4 to 5 years if they were adults) before gaining freedom.
| Group Name | How the Contract Was Made | Level of Voluntariness | Typical Term Length |
|---|---|---|---|
| Traditional Indentured Servant | Signed in Europe before sailing | Voluntary (usually driven by poverty) | 4 to 7 years |
| Redemptioner | Negotiated in America upon arrival | Voluntary (arranged debt) | Variable (based on remaining debt) |
| Convict Servant | Ordered by British courts | Involuntary (legal punishment) | 7 to 14 years |
| Spirited Servant | None (kidnapped) | Involuntary (criminal abduction) | 4 to 7 years |
While "coolie" labor operated under the broader umbrella of contractually bound labor, there were profound historical, legal, and racial differences between 19th-century Asian "coolie" labor and 17th-to-18th-century European indentured servitude. [1, 2]
Historically, the "coolie" trade emerged in the 1830s specifically to replace transatlantic chattel slavery after it was banned across European empires. Because it borrowed the infrastructure of the slave trade, historians often classify the system as a "new form of slavery", whereas European indenture was viewed more as a harsh bridge to immigration and land ownership. [1, 2, 3]
The critical differences break down across four main areas:
1. Purpose and Historical Context
- European Servants: Used to populate and clear land in the early British colonies (1600s–1700s). They were a temporary solution before chattel slavery became the dominant economic model. [1]
- "Coolies": Deployed globally in the 1800s and early 1900s after the abolition of slavery. European powers (primarily Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal) desperately needed cheap labor to maintain massive sugar, rubber, and tea plantations. [1, 2, 3]
2. Legal Status and Rights
- European Servants: Retained certain rights under English common law. They could sue their masters for extreme abuse, own personal property, and their contract lengths were strictly legally defined. Crucially, they were expected to eventually integrate into the colony as free citizens with full rights. [1, 2, 3]
- "Coolies": Technically "free" contract laborers, they were legally defined as "sub-persons" in practice. They were heavily confined to their plantations, forbidden from traveling without passes, and subjected to corporal punishment and prison sentences for striking or trying to break their contracts. [1, 2, 3]
3. Compensation and "The End Game"
- European Servants: Did not receive regular wages. Instead, they worked for room and board, explicitly playing a high-stakes gamble for "freedom dues"—cash, tools, and crucially, land—at the end of their term.
- "Coolies": Received incredibly low, sub-livable cash wages rather than a payout of land. Colonial laws and predatory contracts were designed to trap them in cycles of debt, forcing them to re-indenture themselves repeatedly. [1, 2, 3, 4]
4. Coercion and Racial Dynamics
- European Servants: While some were kidnapped or convicted, the vast majority chose to sign contracts to escape poverty or prosecution in Europe. They shared the same race, language, and often religion as their masters.
- "Coolies": Recruited heavily from India and China, often through extreme deception, kidnapping (by agents called "crimps"), or forced debt coercion. They faced severe racial discrimination, were segregated from local populations, and the term itself evolved into a deeply offensive racial slur. [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
| Attribute | European Indentured Servants (17th–18th C.) | "Coolies" (19th–20th C.) |
|---|---|---|
| Primary Origins | England, Ireland, Scotland, Germany | India, China, Southeast Asia |
| Primary Era | 1600s – 1700s | 1834 – 1920s |
| Systemic Role | Preceded chattel slavery in the Americas | Replaced chattel slavery globally |
| Ultimate Goal | Transition to free citizenship & land ownership | Extracted, low-wage plantation/infrastructure labor |
| End of Term | "Freedom dues" (Land, tools, capital) | Low wages; frequently forced to re-indenture |
The transatlantic voyage for European indentured servants and redemptioners in the 17th and 18th centuries was a brutal, hazardous test of survival. Driven by greedy ship captains and merchant companies, the conditions aboard these vessels frequently mirrored the horrors of the Middle Passage suffered by enslaved Africans, though white servants retained their legal status as contract laborers rather than property.
The realities of the crossing reveal how these ships functioned as vectors of disease, starvation, and psychological trauma.
1. Deceptive Recruitment and Overcrowding
- The "Soul-Sellers": Many immigrants were lured onto ships by predatory recruiters (known in Germany as Neuländer or "Newlanders") who painted a fantasy of instant wealth in America.
- Packed Like Cargo: Once on board, passengers were packed tightly into the unventilated hold (tween-decks). Ships designed to carry 150 passengers routinely carried 300 to 400 people.
- Suffocating Quarters: Individuals were assigned tiny, cramped berths—often just six feet long and two feet wide—which they frequently had to share with strangers or family members for months.
2. Starvation and Rations
- Spoiled Provisions: Ship captains minimized costs by purchasing the cheapest, lowest-quality food. Rations typically consisted of moldy ship biscuit (hardtack), salted meat that was often rancid, and foul, insect-infested flour.
- Contaminated Water: Fresh water was stored in wooden barrels that quickly grew slimy, thick, and infested with worms. Passengers were often rationed to less than a pint of foul water per day.
- Extortion at Sea: If a voyage took longer than expected due to poor winds, captains would sell extra food and clean water to the desperate passengers at exorbitant, inflated prices, plunging them deeper into debt before they even landed.
3. Disease and Rampant Mortality
- The Breeding Ground: The dark, damp, and unhygienic conditions of the hold made it a perfect breeding ground for highly contagious illnesses. The most common killers were typhus (known as "ship fever"), dysentery ("the bloody flux"), smallpox, and scurvy.
- Horrific Sanitation: With no indoor plumbing, passengers used open buckets for human waste. During storms, when the hatches were battened down for days at a time, the stench, heat, and accumulation of filth became entirely unlivable.
- High Death Tolls: It was common for 10% to 30% of the passengers on a single vessel to die at sea. Gottlieb Mittelberger, a German immigrant who documented his 1750 voyage, noted that the bodies of the dead—including countless young children—were simply thrown overboard to the sharks.
4. Terror, Violence, and Length of the Voyage
- Unpredictable Timelines: A crossing could take anywhere from six weeks to over four months depending on weather conditions. Long delays meant certain starvation and disease.
- Physical Abuse: Ship crews treated the bound laborers with immense cruelty. Brutal floggings were common for minor infractions, and women were highly vulnerable to sexual exploitation and abuse by the crew.
- The Trauma of Storms: During heavy Atlantic gales, passengers were locked in total pitch-black darkness below deck for days, listening to the crashing waves and the terrifying creaking of the wooden ship, never knowing if they were about to sink.
5. Arrival and the Debt Trap
- Sickly Demands: For redemptioners, the horror did not end when the ship dropped anchor. If a passenger died during the voyage, the surviving family members (spouses or children) were legally forced to take on the deceased person's debt, lengthening their own terms of servitude in America to pay for a ghost's passage.
- The Labor Market: Sick, emaciated, and covered in filth, survivors were lined up on the decks of port cities like Philadelphia or Annapolis to be inspected and purchased by colonial buyers like livestock.
| Aspect of Voyage | Typical Conditions Endured |
|---|---|
| Duration of Journey | 6 to 16+ weeks (entirely weather-dependent) |
| Living Space | Less than 12-15 square feet per person in a dark, unventilated hold |
| Mortality Rates | Averaged 10% to 30% per voyage; significantly higher for children |
| Primary Diseases | Typhus ("ship fever"), dysentery, smallpox, and severe scurvy |
| Financial Penalty | Surviving family members were legally forced to inherit the passage debts of those who died at sea |
As the influx of European indentured servants and redemptioners surged during the 17th and 18th centuries, colonial port cities increasingly found themselves vulnerable to devastating epidemics. Ships packed with malnourished, bound laborers frequently arrived as "pestilence ships", teeming with typhus, smallpox, and yellow fever. [1, 2]
To protect their populations without completely shutting down the highly lucrative trade in goods and human labor, major colonial port cities enacted early maritime quarantine laws. These ordinances laid the groundwork for America's earliest public health infrastructure. [1, 2]
1. The Geographic Cordon: Mile-Limits and Anchorages
Colonial governments quickly realized that allowing a diseased ship to dock meant immediate contamination of the town. Their primary line of defense was forced geographic isolation. [1, 2, 3]
- The One-Mile Rule: In 1700, following a catastrophic yellow fever outbreak that wiped out a significant portion of the town, Philadelphia passed one of the earliest comprehensive quarantine laws in America. The law strictly prohibited any "unhealthy or sickly vessels" from anchoring closer than one mile to any port without official permission. [1]
- Offshore Anchorages: Cities designated specific islands or remote waterways where suspect vessels were forced to wait. New York City established a dedicated quarantine anchorage off Bedloe’s Island (now home to the Statue of Liberty) in 1738 to intercept ships coming from the West Indies or Europe before they could reach Manhattan. [1, 2, 3]
2. The Introduction of Port Physicians and Health Inspections
Before a ship could unload its cargo of indentured servants, it had to be cleared by authorities. This led to the creation of the role of the port physician. [1, 2]
- Mandatory Boarding: In the 1720s, Pennsylvania's governor authorized health officials (such as Dr. Patrick Baird) to physically board incoming vessels. [1]
- Inspecting the Living Cargo: The physician would descend into the foul tween-decks to inspect the physical condition of the passengers and crew. If the doctor found signs of highly contagious diseases, the ship was denied a landing license and ordered back into isolation. [1, 2]
3. "Pest Houses" and Lazarettos
If a ship was deemed infected, it could not simply be sent away—especially if it carried valuable merchant cargo or contracts for laborers. Port cities constructed dedicated isolation facilities known as Pest Houses or Lazarettos (named after the historic quarantine islands of Venice). [1, 2, 3, 4]
- The Processing System: Sick passengers and indentured servants were taken off the ships and placed in these shoreline hospitals. The healthy passengers were often kept separate or monitored on the ship to see if they would develop symptoms.
- The Philadelphia Lazaretto: Though built just after the colonial era in 1799 (following the historic 1793 Yellow Fever crisis), Philadelphia’s Lazaretto became the premier processing facility in the nation. It featured a hospital, a government administration building, and dedicated warehouses. [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]
4. "Airing" Cargo and Disinfection
Early medical understanding did not grasp germs, but it heavily relied on the miasma theory—the belief that diseases were spread by noxious, foul air and trapped odors. Therefore, quarantine laws mandated rigorous physical cleansing. [1, 2]
- Ventilating the Holden: Ships under quarantine were forced to open all hatches, wash their decks with vinegar, and burn sulfur inside the holds to "purify" the air.
- Airing the Belongings: The clothing, bedding, and baggage of indentured immigrants—frequently the primary vectors for body lice carrying typhus—had to be taken ashore, unloaded into warehouses, and continuously aired out for days before being allowed into the city limits. [1, 2]
5. Economic Tension and Enforcement
These laws created immense friction between public health officials and merchant elites. [1]
- The Financial Toll: Keeping a ship quarantined for weeks caused massive financial losses. Perishable food rotted, and the delayed sale of indentured labor contracts meant merchants lost profits.
- Severe Penalties: Because the stakes were so high, breaking quarantine carried heavy punishments. Fines were astronomical, and under British maritime law (which influenced colonial codes), a captain who knowingly hid an infection or slipped passengers ashore illegally could face capital punishment. [1, 2, 3]
| Port City | Early Regulatory Measure | Primary Threat Addressed |
|---|---|---|
| Boston / Mass. Bay | Passed the first temporary quarantine law in 1647; mandated isolation houses in 1701. | Yellow Fever (from the West Indies) & Smallpox |
| Philadelphia | Enacted a 1-mile legal boundary cordon in 1700; established formal port physician inspections. | Typhus ("Ship Fever") & Yellow Fever |
| New York | Designated Bedloe's Island as a mandatory offshore quarantine anchorage in 1738. | Smallpox & Yellow Fever |
| Charleston | Formed strict local screening and guard systems for infected incoming households and docks. | Smallpox |
When comparing the ships that carried European indentured servants and redemptioners to the ships of the Transatlantic Slave Trade (the Middle Passage), historians generally agree that while both involved staggering levels of suffering and mortality, the slave ships were unequivocally worse in their systemic cruelty, physical degradation, and total denial of human layout.
While a passenger on a "pestilence ship" carrying European servants might experience levels of starvation and disease that rivaled a slave ship, the core operational, legal, and psychological structures of the two systems were fundamentally different.
1. Physical Restraint and Confinement
- Slave Ships: Enslaved Africans were viewed purely as lifelong chattel property. They were forced into the hold in near-total darkness, shackled together in irons by their wrists and ankles for weeks or months on end. They could rarely turn over or stand up, and were forced to lie in their own bodily waste.
- Servant Ships: European indentured servants were cramped, unventilated, and lived in horrific filth, but they were not shackled or chained. They were legally passengers (albeit bound by contract) and generally had the freedom to move around their deck and go up to the main deck for air when weather permitted.
2. Systemic and Institutionalized Violence
- Slave Ships: The crew viewed the enslaved population as a constant security threat prone to mutiny. Violence was a structural tool of control. Enslaved people faced constant, brutal floggings, the use of thumbscrews, and horrific devices like the speculum oris (a mechanical device used to force open the mouths of those attempting to starve themselves to death in protest).
- Servant Ships: While crews on servant ships could be incredibly cruel and floggings did occur, servants were protected by basic tenets of European law. A captain could be tried for murder or excessive abuse back in port. Violence was punitive rather than a pervasive, daily mechanism of psychological terror.
3. Mortality Rates and Economic Incentives
- Slave Ships: Over the course of the slave trade, the average mortality rate on the Middle Passage hovered around 15% to 20%, though earlier centuries saw much higher numbers. Crucially, because enslaved people were owned property, captains had a direct financial incentive to keep them alive to sell at market.
- Servant Ships: Mortality on servant ships was highly volatile, sometimes averaging 10% to 30%, occasionally exceeding slave ship mortality on specific disastrous voyages. However, this was driven by negligence, greed, and bad weather rather than intentional malice. For redemptioners, a perverse economic loophole actually incentivized captains less: if a redemptioner died at sea, colonial law allowed the captain to force the surviving family members to inherit and pay off the dead relative's debt, meaning the captain still collected his money.
4. The Psychological Toll
- Slave Ships: Enslaved Africans suffered total, permanent uprooting. They were stripped of their clothes, branded with hot irons, separated from their families, and forced into a completely alien world with no hope of return or legal recourse.
- Servant Ships: European servants faced a harrowing journey, but they were traveling toward a destination they had fundamentally chosen or understood within their own cultural framework. They retained their names, their clothes, their language, and crucially, the legal guarantee of future freedom once their contract expired.
Comparative Summary of Atlantic Transatlantic Crossing Vessels
| Operational Dimension | European Servant / Redemptioner Ships | African Slave Trade Ships (Middle Passage) |
|---|---|---|
| Legal Status of Cargo | Contractual passengers (temporary bound labor) [1] | Chattel property (lifelong, hereditary slavery) [1] |
| Physical Restraint | Unshackled; free to move within designated decks | Permanently shackled in pairs; severely restricted movement |
| Daily Violence | Punitive and irregular; bound by maritime law | Structural, constant, and terror-based to prevent mutiny |
| Economic Incentive | Captains could legally pass a deceased passenger's debt onto surviving relatives | Captains only profited if the individual survived to be sold at market |
| Ultimate Horizon | Survival meant a fixed term of labor followed by full freedom and civic rights [1] | Survival meant permanent enslavement and the complete erasure of legal personhood [1] |
The architecture of a transatlantic slave ship was not merely an adaptation of a standard cargo vessel; it was a highly specialized, floating prison engineered to maximize financial profit while suppressing human resistance. Every foot of space was calculated to achieve two conflicting goals: packing the maximum number of human beings into the hold while maintaining enough total physical control to prevent mutiny.
The physical design of these vessels reveals how space, wood, and iron were weaponized to enforce containment.
1. The "Tonnage-to-Body" Formula and False Decks
The primary architectural goal of a slave ship builder or modifier was maximizing cargo density.
- The Spoon-Fashion Packing: The lower holds were redesigned using a "tight packing" philosophy. Enslaved people were forced to lie side-by-side on their backs or sides, nestled into one another like spoons.
- The Tween-Decks (Platforms): To double the capacity of a standard ship hold, carpenters built temporary intermediary wooden platforms between the ceiling and the floor of the hold. This split the vertical space into shelves that were often only two to three feet high (60 to 90 cm). Enslaved people could never stand upright; they were forced to crawl or crouch for weeks on end.
2. Structural Security: The Barricado
The most distinct architectural feature separating a slave ship from a standard merchant vessel was the barricado (or barricade).
- The Partition Wall: This was a massive, reinforced wooden wall built transversely across the main deck, usually just forward of the main mast. It stood roughly 8 to 10 feet tall and was topped with sharp iron spikes or broken glass.
- The Safe Zone: The barricado split the ship into two distinct zones. The forward section contained the enslaved people when they were allowed on deck. The rear section (the quarterdeck) contained the ship's steering wheel, the armory, and the crew.
- Loop-Holes for Muskets: The wall was punctured with small slits (loopholes). If a rebellion began on the forward deck, the crew could retreat behind the barricado and fire muskets or pivot cannons loaded with canister shot directly into the crowd without danger to themselves.
3. The Ventilation Fallacy: Gratings vs. Security
Human beings require oxygen to survive, but providing airflow created security vulnerabilities. Ship builders had to balance keeping their "cargo" alive with preventing escapes.
- Iron Gratings: Heavy iron or thick wooden lattice gratings replaced solid wooden hatch covers on the main deck. These allowed a minimal stream of air and light into the suffocatingly hot hold below.
- Air Sails: Large canvas funnels called air sails were rigged to catch the wind and force it down into the hatches.
- The Security Lockout: During storms or rough seas, the crew was forced to batten down the hatches completely, sealing the iron gratings with solid wood and tarpaulins. This cut off almost all oxygen, causing temperatures in the hold to skyrocket past 40°C (100°F), leading to mass suffocations.
4. Fixed Iron Weaponry: Ringbolts and Shackles
The physical timber of the ship was designed to interact directly with iron hardware to ensure zero mobility.
- Deck Ringbolts: Heavy iron rings were bolted directly into the structural oak beams of the ship’s lower deck. Chains were threaded through these rings to anchor rows of enslaved people directly to the ship's framework, preventing them from moving even if they managed to break their individual shackles.
- Gender and Age Segregation: The hold was architecturally partitioned into three distinct secure chambers using thick wooden bulkheads (walls): one for men (who were always kept in leg irons and chains), one for boys, and one for women and girls (who were usually left unchained but subjected to horrific sexual violence by the crew).
5. Force-Feeding Infrastructure: The Speculum Oris
Because enslaved people frequently attempted suicide through hunger strikes as an act of resistance, slave ships carried specialized medical and architectural tools to preserve their economic value.
- The Speculum Oris: If an individual refused to eat, the crew utilized a heavy, scissor-like iron instrument. The sharp end was forced into the person's mouth, and a thumbscrew was turned to mechanically crank the jaws open, often breaking teeth and fracturing jaws, so that a gruel of horsebeans or rice could be forced down their throat.
Architectural Blueprint of a Slave Ship
| Architectural Feature | Physical Design | Engineering Purpose |
|---|---|---|
| Tween-Decks (Platforms) | Built-in horizontal wooden shelves reducing headroom to 2–3 feet. | Doubled the floor surface area to maximize human cargo density. |
| The Barricado | An 8-to-10-foot-tall spiked wooden fortress wall dividing the main deck. | Created a defensive barrier protecting the crew and weaponry from mutinies. |
| Iron Hatch Gratings | Heavy lattice frames replacing solid deck hatches. | Provided minimal airflow while physically preventing prisoners from reaching the deck. |
| Deck Bulkheads | Thick interior wooden walls partitioning the lower hold. | Segregated the captive population by gender and age to disrupt coordinated rebellions. |
7:00 Jacksonian democracy - Second Party System
12:00 Mexican American War 1846-8
13:00 Texas Revolution 1836
14:00 The Wars of the Reformation continued in America.
15:00 Polk Administration
Whigs denounced manifested destiny.
17:00 "Universal Yankee Nation"
18:00 Continentatlism
20:00 White Supremacy, Puritanism and City on Hill
21:00 Thomas Paine: "Birthday of a New World"
22:00 Monroe Doctrine
23:00 Pre or Post-American Revolution
24:00 Democracy is the real religion of America.
25:00 Dmocracy or theocracy?
Slavery
26:00 Peter Moskos
28:00 Prison Industrial Complex
33:00 New Canaan, Connecticut
34:00 Dorceta Taylor, DEI appointment
38:00 Anti-immigrarnt nativism in the time of Lincoln
39:00 White Christian on White Christian violence
41:00 Gilded Age - a term coined by Mark Twain
42:00 Anti-German violence
46:00 Chinese Exclusion Act
49:00 Klu Klux Klan
51:00 Immigration quotas
59:00 The consequences of the American Civil War
1:00:00 Henry Clay
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Clay1:02:00 Annexation of Texas caused the Mexican American War
1:03:00 Imperial acquisitions of America
1:06:00 Riots in France
1:07:00 David Betz predicts Civil War in Europe by 2030.
1:17:00 Lot's Wife
1:20:00 PVK's deliberately misunderstands SK USA to discredit it.
1:22:00 Our trough
1:25:00 Getting it down in writing
1:28:00 Making a proposal
1:30:00 The integrity of Secular Koranism is independent of my morals.
Secular Koranism has an independent existence from me.
1:08:00 Politicians are paid actors.
1:10:00 Even Moses said: "Who me?"
1:12:00 Men of TLC
1:13:00 Is America one nation under God trusting in God with a manifest destiny or a nation of neurotics, nihilists and narcissists who came together as a result of random chance?
1:14:00 Confucianism and Legalism
1:39:00 Indentured servitude
1:43:00 Coolie
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